Symptoms occur as a result of maladaptation of the personality to the environment. It is helpful to think in terms of four broad headings:

• cognitive-perceptual (for example, excessive suspiciousness)
• affective (for example, emotional instability and anger difficulties)
• interpersonal
  - relationship with self/sense of self
  - interpersonal relationships
  - relationship with society
• behavioural/impulse control (including self-harm and suicidal behaviour)

Personality Traits

A personality trait (or variable) is a complex structure which represents the basic building block of personality. In a given individual, genetic and environmental factors transact to form a complex biopsychological system which produces observable trait-based behaviour.
Essentially, a personality trait represents a disposition to behave in a particular way. The term is also sometimes used to refer to individual features of specific personality disorder, especially when the full diagnostic criteria are not met. For example, someone meeting four of the five criteria needed for a diagnosis of borderline personality disorder may be referred to as having “borderline traits”.

Some traits which are of particular importance in personality disorder are listed below with brief descriptions of associated behaviours. Traits can be usefully organised into four main higher order trait domains: (emotionally) dysregulated, detached, dissocial, and compulsive.

There may be overlap between some traits and it is worth noting that some of the names used for particular traits may have different meanings when used in other contexts. The traits below are drawn from the Personality Assessment Schedule (Tyrer, 2000). Other sources may label particular traits differently.

It is important to remember that no personality trait is inherently negative. Many traits can be described by more than one term, some with negative connotations and some with positive connotations. For example: impulsive versus spontaneous; stubborn versus determined; aloof versus self-contained and so on. Problems arise when a person’s personality traits are maladapted to their environment. With more extreme expressions of particular traits, maladaption is likely in a greater number of environments leading to greater severity of personality disturbance.

Dysregulated (Internalising) Domain
Pessimism — holds a pessimistic outlook on life.
Worthlessness — feelings of inferiority
Lability — mood instability
Anxiousness — anxiety-proneness
Shyness — shyness and lack of self-confidence
Sensitivity — personal sensitivity and tendency to self-reference
Vulnerability — experiences excessive emotional distress when faced with adversity
Childishness — excessive self-centeredness
Resourcelessness — tendency to give up when faced with adversity
Dependence — excessive reliance on others for advice and reassurance
Submissiveness — limited ability to express own views or stand up for oneself
Hypochondriasis — over-concern about illness and health

Detached (Schizoid/inhibited) Domain
Suspiciousness — excessive mistrust of others
Introspection — prone to rumination and fantasy
Aloofness — detachment and lack of interest in other people
Eccentricity — oddness in behaviour and attitudes; unwilling or unable to conform

Dissocial (Externalising) Domain
Optimism — unrealistically optimistic, over-confident, excessively self-important
Irritability — excessively irritable
Impulsiveness — excessive impulsiveness
Aggression — excessive levels of (physical) aggression
Callousness — indifferent to the feelings of others
Irresponsibility — indifferent to the consequences of one’s behaviour

Compulsive (Anankastic) Domain
Conscientiousness — overly fussy, perfectionistic
Rigidity — inflexibility and difficulty adjusting to new situations